Over the past two centuries, cholera has swept across the globe in seven major pandemics, leaving a profound mark on human history. These outbreaks, driven by the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, have been closely tied to the growth of global trade, travel, and military movements, which facilitated the disease’s rapid spread across continents. The first six pandemics, spanning from 1817 to 1923, originated primarily in India and devastated regions as far-reaching as Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The seventh pandemic, which began in 1961, continues to challenge global health systems today.
The first cholera pandemic emerged in 1817 in Kolkata, India, and quickly spread across the subcontinent, claiming countless lives, including many British soldiers. Fueled by trade routes, the disease reached Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Eastern Africa, and parts of Europe, with China and Indonesia among the hardest hit. It resulted in over 100,000 deaths worldwide before subsiding in 1824.
The second pandemic, from 1826 to 1837, was the most destructive. Originating again in India, it surged through Europe and North America, devastating populations in Russia, Hungary, Germany, Egypt, England, and France. Cities like Paris saw tens of thousands perish, with France alone losing around 100,000 people. The movement of armies and merchants played a significant role in its global reach, making it a grim testament to the era’s expanding connectivity.
The third pandemic, spanning 1845 to 1860, likely began in India before spreading to North Africa and North America, with Brazil facing severe impacts. This outbreak claimed over a million lives, underscoring cholera’s lethal potential in the absence of modern sanitation and medical interventions.
From 1863 to 1875, the fourth pandemic again traced its roots to India, spreading to Italy, Spain, and the United States over its 12-year course. The fifth pandemic, from 1881 to 1896, followed a similar pattern, originating in India and extending its reach to Europe, Asia, and South America over 15 years.
The sixth pandemic, lasting from 1899 to 1923, also began in India, possibly triggered by mass gatherings like the Kumbh Mela in Haridwar. It spread through Punjab and Afghanistan to Persia, Southern Russia, West Asia, North Africa, and Eastern Europe, causing approximately 800,000 deaths over its 24-year span.
The seventh pandemic, which began in 1961 in Indonesia with the El Tor strain, persists to this day. It spread to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) by 1963, India by 1964, Soviet Russia by 1966, and South America by 1973, with outbreaks reported in places like Japan, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Istanbul, and Jerusalem. The World Health Organization notes that this pandemic continues, with significant outbreaks in Yemen from 2016 to 2021 and ongoing cases in various African nations. South Africa also faced notable outbreaks between 1991 and 1994. Even in 2022 and beyond, cholera remains a persistent global health threat, particularly in regions with limited access to clean water and sanitation.
These pandemics highlight cholera’s enduring challenge, driven by environmental and societal factors, and underscore the importance of global health efforts to combat its spread.
